Applying Structures of Knowledge and Process to the new upper sec geography curriculum

 

      In our most recent ST-LT Professional Learning session, we shared with the fraternity about Erickson and Lanning’s ideas of Structure of Knowledge and Structure of Process to support the delivery of the new upper secondary syllabus. What do you need to know about the two structures so that you can enact a concept-based curriculum?

I will share three key points in this blog article:

·       What is a concept-based curriculum?

·       How does the structures of knowledge and process interact with each other?

·       How can we foster professional growth in concept-based instruction?

(1) Many of you are already familiar with the Structure of Knowledge. By contrasting it with the Structure of Process in the diagram below, you can see how the elements of subject areas in the Structure of Process are organized by processes, strategies, and skill instead of topics and facts. Indeed, as you examine the outcomes of Topic 1.3 (Geographical Methods), you find that the learning goals and outcomes are written as things students need to do vs. content concepts they need to know. To move from the lower cognitive levels (of knowing facts and being able to execute skills) to a higher level of transferable understandings (generalizations), both the Structure of Knowledge and the Structure of Process are critical.

You need to consider generalizations in terms of the two Structures when designing curriculum of topics especially when we are thinking about integrating fieldwork experiences (extended or bite-sized) into your lessons. Clearly, a more content-heavy cluster like climate (Structure of Knowledge) also requires that students understand key processes (such as the sampling and collection of weather data). A more process-oriented (Structure of Process) topic on the other hand, such as Geographical Methods, requires students to understand key knowledge about the content concepts in the phenomenon being studied for example, the development of tourism destination. There is an interplay between the two Structures.

(2) Depending on the cluster or topic that you are teaching, one Structure may require more attention than the other so that the authenticity of the topic and learning experience is enhanced. For example, if the sub-topic on organization of neighbourhoods is fronted only with learning concepts of hierarchy, scale and features, essential understandings about how shapes and clusters are used in base maps as secondary data may be ignored.

The new upper secondary curriculum adopts a disciplinary approach to strengthening learning progression which emphasizes continuity from lower secondary to pre-university. Students’ are expected to acquire a more “sophisticated understanding of disciplinary concepts” and “being able to understand more rigorous fieldwork methods over time” (TLS, p 7). Crafting big ideas (or generalization) that reflect important understandings of the processes, strategies, and skills students are expected to perform is therefore imperative.

Using the topic of “How neighbourhoods are organized in Singapore?” in cluster one, you will notice that when the Structure of Knowledge is used together with the Structure of Process, the conceptual curriculum built around content in the Structure of Knowledge now gains depth in the practice and application of the topic. At the same time, having the Structure of Process layered upon the Structure of Knowledge adds salience to the learning of skills, moving it beyond the mere act of “doing” fieldwork to understanding the meaning and significance of fieldwork. 

Cluster 1: Geography in Everyday Life (Topic 1.4: How are neighbourhoods organized in Singapore / Topic 3.3 How to process and analyse data)

(3) So what then can we view professional development of teachers in this Concept-based journey? Erickson et al. (2017) describes four domains in which teachers may evolve:

·       Domain 1 Understanding Concept-based Curriculum and Instruction

·       Domain 2 Concept-based Unit Planning

·       Domain 3 Concept-based Lesson Planning

·       Domain 4 Concept-based Instruction

 

At Domain 1, gaining a sound understanding of CBCI is important and takes time. Teacher leaders can consider supporting colleagues with mentoring and peer coaching, deepening their knowledge with ongoing work and collaboration with experienced Concept-based practitioners. At Domain 2, gaining an understanding of the unit design process and the relationship between different sections of the unit template is critical. Domains 3 and 4 suggest that lesson planning and enactment are critical processes that actualise a natural flow of the many pedagogical considerations in planning and eventual pedagogical moves. These are critical processes that sustain learning even among aspiring and veteran teachers. Having thought through a plan, developed resources of high-quality lessons and getting skilled at facilitating students’ conceptual understandings, the concept-based teacher rounds up his/her learning and growth with self-reflection.  

References:

Erickson H. L., Lanning L. A. & French R. (2017) Concept-based Curriculum and Instruction, Corwin, Thousand Oaks

2023 Upper Secondary Geography Teaching and Learning Syllabus, CPDD, MOE.

https://corwin-connect.com/2016/11/need-know-structure-process/ (Last accessed 27 March 23)

Using the GRR model – role of the teacher and an example from Plate Tectonics

Many of us are familiar with the GRR (Gradual Release of Responsibility) model by Fisher and Frey and we use it in our classroom instruction. I have also seen GRR being used across various subjects (such as lessons teaching literacy skills) with different groups of secondary school students. Often, teachers would design learning activities which has four distinct stages according to the GRR:

•        Focused Instruction (“I do”)
•        Guided Instruction (“We do it together”)
•        Collaborative Learning (“You do it together”)
•        Independent Learning (“You do it alone”)

Pearson, McVee & Sharnahan (2019) provided a descriptive study of the historical genesis of GRR to guide teachers’ thinking in its use for instruction in the book “The Gradual Release of Responsibility in Literacy Research and Practice”. As the first chapter in the 270-page book which also covers various contexts of use of GRR, it might be a tall order to finish the book to have a good understanding.  In this blog, I will be giving you a gist about how you might consider your role as a facilitator of students’ learning as you refine your practice of GRR in the teaching of geography.

First, we need to understand that the nature of learning shifts from teacher-driven to student-driven in phases in the GRR. Sometimes, teachers get the notion that once the responsibility for learning goes to the student, the teacher no longer plays a significant role. The roles of the teacher and students merely transform to match the changed learning context. This can be exemplified in the diagram below.

Source: The teacher plays an active role in all parts of GRR (middleweb.com)

How does this process look like in the geography classroom?

In a series of secondary three lessons on disaster risk management (topic 4.3) for example, the teacher needs to teach the concept of “disaster risk management”, i.e., the idea that disaster “risks” could be managed by understanding the nature and exposure to hazards, as well as humankind’s ability to reduce vulnerable conditions they face.

In “I do”, the teacher should not use more time than necessary to lead students’ thinking in a way to introduce and organize their thoughts around idea clusters (see below). For example, we could teach what do we mean by “nature of hazards”, “exposure to hazards” and vulnerable conditions.

Nature of hazards	Exposure to hazards	Vulnerable conditions
Physical factors -          Duration and time -          Properties of hazards o   Magnitude of EQ, chemistry of magma o   Substratum (rock, soil, water) o   Distance from epicentre o   Weather conditions	Human factors -          Population density (human settlements) -          Quality of building design and construction -          Monitoring and warning systems -          Land Use Planning	Lack of resources   Lack of capability   Lack of stakeholder engagement

Source: Adapted from Concept Map of Topic 3.3 (TLS, CPDD)

In direct teaching, the teacher is NOT teaching didactically. Instead, he focuses on presenting knowledge in an easy-to-understand fashion, provides opportunities to stimulate students interest, asks students questions for them to exercise reasoning. This requires a skillful approach to IBL which we are familiar with.

In the next stage of “we do it together”, the teacher facilitates a discussion studying the Tohoku Earthquake of 2011. By getting students to read the case example of this earthquake together as a class, the teacher guides students to identify the nature of the Tohoku earthquake, the Japanese’ perennial exposure to earthquake and volcanic hazards by virtue of their location and low-lying coastal settlements. Their decision to site nuclear plants at the coast for example, presents both an opportunity and a risk which the Japanese government had to bear. As a seasoned guide, the teacher properly scopes and designs questions to tease out content concepts from students and a co-constructs the succinct summary to sum up the key learning points.

Following this, the teacher presents another scenario of the most recent Turkey-Syria earthquake to the student groups as they answer this question, “How could Turkey better prepare itself to avoid another devastating episode of earthquake like the one in 2023?” In this stage, students would be organizing their thoughts and arguments as they solve a problem together. Information can be presented in data snippets for students to study, for example, location, size and time of earthquake, population density, age of buildings, lack of resources, capability, poor building control and design etc. At this juncture, the students’ roles come to the forefront as they leverage each other to tackle the issue. Teacher can serve as a resource person, prompting and questioning students to arrive at their conclusions.

In the final and independent stage, the students will apply what they have collaboratively learnt in an authentic and self-directed context. For example, they could independently respond to this question, “Evaluate the choices in managing earthquake disaster risks so that people can continue to sustainably and safely live in earthquake prone areas.” To allow greater student choice, the teacher may include photo essay submissions instead of essay submissions.     

Conclusion 

The GRR is strongly grounded in various theories that suggest a social-constructivist approach. As such, it is important to include the "you do it together" stage. As much as your student learns from you as the "sage on the stage", their collaboration with their peers is critical for learning to occur. It therefore complements IBL and DI in a few ways as I have shown above: anchoring learning with key questions, offering choices and help resources as students work collaboratively and independently. 

It is also important to note that the GRR need not always start with focused instruction (I do). We may begin a lesson with independent work (you do alone) before engaging them in collaborative peer inquiry prior (we do together) to providing teacher modelling. The crux is for students to encouter the four phases of learning in GRR so that they can learn deeply. 

References:

Fisher & Frey (2021), Better Learning Through Structured Teaching, ASCD, VA

Gradual Release of Responsibility | Introduction (thinkport.org) (Last accessed 9 March 2023)

The Teacher Plays an Active Role in all parts of GRR (middleweb.com)(Last accessed 9 March 2023)

Teaching climate change conceptually

Just a few days ago (2 Mar 23), ST reported that the ability of our land ecosystems are declining in their ability to absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide. This spells trouble for mankind. How might we help our students understand the nuanced and inter-related nature of global warming? To do this, it is important to also teach the concepts of feedback loops and tipping point. The article by Climate Reality Project defines climate feedback loops as processes that can either amplify or diminish the effects of climate forcings. Forcings are factors like solar input, greenhouse gas emissions, and airborne particles like dust, smoke, and soot that come from human and natural sources which influence Earth's heat budget. Feedback loops strengthen or weaken the effects of these factors which then starts a cyclical chain reaction all over again. Tipping point is defined as a small change within the (climatic) system that can move a fairly stable system to a very different state.

These are two important steps you can take to help your students uncover these concepts and transfer their learning (Stern et al., 2017, Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).

1) Uncovering concepts (instead of covering content) 

You can consider using the SEEI framework (Paul & Elder, 2013) to help students learn these concepts more effectively. The steps for SEEI are:

1) Provide clear explanations of the target concept(s) e.g. feedback loops and tipping point. You can consider providing a one page overview with elaboration and examples, and or use video clips.

2) Assign students to small groups and ask them read the explanations together with the goal of understanding the target concept(s). Encourage them to ask questions and seek answers using their PLDs.

3) Have them work collaboratively to explain the concepts using SEEI 

• State the idea clearly 
• Elaborate on the idea (in order words ... this also means ... )
• Exemplify (for example ... a non example would be ...)
• Illustrate with a metaphor, analogy or image (it is like ... )

Circulate to provide feedback, encourage students to generate good examples and non-examples, and provide illustrations to the concepts. Do not allow students to use examples embedded in the provided text. Students should come up with their own examples or non-examples to demonstrate understanding.

4)  Students groups can present to the class. For example, some groups can share their statements of the ideas, while others can elaborate or provide examples. You can have more groups share their illustrations as they are more varied than the other elements of SEEI. This is a good time for AfL as students demonstrate their understandings and (mis)understandings.

2)  Transferring knowledge

Transferring knowledge is a critical step in helping students see the world differently. For example, instead of rote learning Topic 3.2 on climate change in the new upper sec syllabus, they would now understand the significance of anthropogenic factors and inter-connectedness between human and natural systems.

After students have uncovered the concepts of feedback loops and tipping point, they need to practice transfer. Consider this next step: Students read articles and watch videos related to the real world phenomena of:

• Melting of permafrost in the Arctic, which is a huge global store of methane and carbon, resulting in the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
• Losing of polar sea ice causing a lowered reflective index (albedo), thereby exposing the darker ocean surface which absorbs heat more readily.
• Die-back of the Amazon rainforests which makes them more susceptible to fires, therefore releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• Large-scale coral bleaching which reduces the ability of our oceans to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide.  

You can present this inquiry: "Knowing the importance of the inter-connectedness of climate change within our natural systems, how might you design an educational programme to highlight the fact that global warming is more urgent and immediate than we might have imagined?"

Students then work in groups to come up with proposals that take into consideration the inter-connectedness of global warming and immediacy of climate action. They will present their proposals to the class, and discuss how their understanding of concepts such as feedback loops and tipping points influenced their decisions.  

Concluding remarks

While it takes more time and effort to teach conceptually and effect transfer, you can also see that authentic transfer tasks such as the one suggested above make for a meaningful learning experience. Students have the opportunity to learn about authentic real-world examples and collaborate in decision-making that concretise abstract concepts. Instead of merely repeating them without real understanding, you will also see right away if their ability to apply the concepts is weak. 

In summary, concepts and conceptual relationships are like keys to opening treasure chests. These keys are buried in the ground, which have to be uncovered in specific contexts. The transfer task is like the treasure chest, which presents that novel situation to unlock students' conceptual understanding. The burden of uncovering the key, and thinking about how to unlock the treasure chest lies on the learner, not the teacher.

References:

Stern, Ferraro & Mohnkern (2017) Tools for Teaching Conceptual Understanding, Corwin CA

Wiggins G P & McTighe J (2005) Understanding by Design, Alexandria VA

 The Climate Reality Project (retrieved 4 Mar 23)

Mastery Learning and Targeted Support - a logical and effective way to DI

In the SFEd DI workshops that I conduct, participants learn about Bloom’s Mastery Learning Instructional Process (1974) as a means to cater to the learning needs of two groups of students, those who have mastered (hence are ready for extension activities) and those who have not (hence require “correctives”, as Blooms labelled it). This instructional process of targeted support is about DI. What Blooms wrote about 49 years ago still holds water today because learning and mastery is an enduring endeavour in our classrooms.

Goodwin and Rouleau in their new book The New Classroom Instruction that Works (2023, 3^rd Ed) write about research backed targeted support which might be useful for your consideration in DI. While most of the research were conducted in elementary school settings, one research piece by Vaughn et al. (2017) stood out for its large sample size of 1629 in the context of middle school social studies. You can therefore be relatively assured of the efficacy in a humanities classroom, while bearing in mind the cultural context of a western classroom setting.

The following are guiding principles for providing students with targeted support:

i. Supplementing and not supplanting good "first instruction"

ii. Tapping extensively on formative assessment data to identify which students need support and what type of supports they need

iii. Structuring mini-lessons which engage learners in concentrated cycles of learning

With these principles in mind, you will be ready to DI with greater effectiveness. 

(1)  Ensuring first instruction provide opportunities to master key knowledge and skills  It is important to know that targeted supports are only necessary when initial instruction fails to help students achieve mastery. In other words, the more effective your instruction is, the fewer students will require additional support. Be clear about what success looks like (set those success criteria), ensure you plan for and enact opportunities for students to focus on new learning, sense make of their learning and practice the new learning.

      (2)   Using regular checks during independent practice   Checks are critical in this stage so that you can catch students before they fall. Regular quizzes, observations and practice to monitor students’ progress towards mastery are the way to go. Doing this diligently helps you identify those who are struggling. If you wait until the end-of-unit assignment to realise this, you will paddle twice as hard just to make sure they are up to speed. Identify those struggles early on to provide targeted support.

      (3)   Structuring targeted support as mini cycles of learning   A structured, targeted support includes reteaching of key concepts or skills, explaining them in a different way (e.g. more visual, using manipulatives, more concrete examples), providing students the opportunity to retry learning. As you observe them closely so see what misconceptions they have, you are providing formative feedback to correct these misconceptions and mistakes. 

      (4)  Tapping on data do determine when students no longer need targeted support   Your students should not stay in the targeted support group forever. Once they have caught up (and you have also taught them self-monitoring strategies), they are ready to move on. Be sure to connect their success to the extra effort they have put in, reinforcing a Growth Mindset as you attribute positive outcomes to their hard work.  

       References:

Guskey (2007) "All our children learning" in Blackstein, Coles and Houston eds, Engaging Every Learner, Corwin Press, CA. p 101-115

Goodwin & Rouleau (2023) The New Classroom Instruction that Works, ASCD, Arlington, VA.